TIP OF THE DAY 12: Name > Type and Name > Category

MJ. Smith
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edited November 20 in English Forum

link to next post TIP OF THE DAY 13: Name > Substitute - Logos Forums

We are finally getting into the information that we need to know about a name, whether or not Logos/Verbum makes it available to us. From here on, I really need your feedback on data I have missed, uses that apply to methods I'm not particularly familiar with, unclear directions ... you get the idea. I will be making the editorial changes/additions/deletions in the shared .docx file. I apologize that the forum software loses indentation which especially matters in this post.

TOPIC: Name.Name type

QUESTION: What attributes of names are useful for classifying Biblical names and using them?

SOFTWARE: I used a deliberately loaded question with an all smart search and with Perplexity. I got two very different answers. One went straight to a philosophical/theological framework. The other took a more cultural/literary approach. Both should offer the usual Logos/Verbum user with options to enhance their scripture study skills.

From Logo/Verbum comes this synopsis:

The classification of attributes or divisions of being is a complex topic in philosophy and theology. Several important divisions are discussed in the articles, including natural and moral attributes, absolute and relative attributes, and immanent and emanent attributes[1]. Other significant divisions include metaphysical, physical, and logical universals[2], as well as the Aristotelian categories of substance and accident[3]. Additionally, the articles mention divisions between actual and potential being, and between beings in reality and beings in propositions[3]. Some classifications also consider geographic, cultural, or "ethnic" identity[4]. While these divisions cover many aspects, the articles do not explicitly state whether there are additional important divisions missing from this series of classification questions. The articles suggest that the classification of attributes and divisions of being is an ongoing area of study and debate in philosophy and theology[1][2][3].

[1] L. Berkhof, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans publishing co., 1938), 55.

[2] Thomas Harper, The Metaphysics of the School, vol. 1 (London: Macmillan and Co., 1879–1884), 320.

[3] James M. Jacobs, Seat of Wisdom: An Introduction to Philosophy in the Catholic Tradition (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 2022), 119.

[4] Brigitte Groneberg, “Searching for Akkadian Lyrics: From Old Babylonian to the ‘Liederkatalog’ KAR 158,” Journal of Cuneiform Studies 55 (2003): 61.

From Perplexity:

Based on the search results and the context of Biblical/religious studies, there are indeed some additional important divisions that could be added to the classification scheme you've outlined. Here are some suggestions:

  1. Theophoric names: Names that incorporate the name of a deity or divine element. This is especially relevant in Biblical contexts, where many names contain elements like "El" or "Yah" referring to God .
  2. Prophetic or symbolic names: Names given to convey a specific message or prophecy, often by prophets to their children .
  3. Names with transformative significance: Names that are changed to reflect a person's spiritual transformation or new role, such as Abram to Abraham or Jacob to Israel .
  4. Titular or descriptive names: Names that describe a person's role, character, or attributes, especially when referring to God or Jesus .
  5. Esoteric or mystical names: In some religious traditions, there are special names of God used for spiritual practices or considered to have mystical significance .
  6. Patronymic or matronymic names: Names that reference a person's father or mother, which is common in Biblical genealogies.
  7. Etymological classification: Names can be classified based on their linguistic origin (Hebrew, Greek, Aramaic, etc.) and meaning .
  8. Functional classification: Names can be categorized based on their function in the text (e.g., to establish authority, to indicate character, to fulfill prophecy) .
  9. Temporal classification: Names could be classified based on whether they are historical, contemporary to the text's writing, or prophetic/future-oriented.
  10. Narrative significance: Names that play a specific role in Biblical narratives or carry special significance in the story .

These additional classifications would provide a more comprehensive framework for analyzing names in Biblical and religious contexts, capturing the rich symbolic, theological, and narrative functions that names often serve in these texts.

QUESTION: What are the basic types of names?

SOFTWARE: Logos/Verbum embeds this information in its icons. Unfortunately, this means it is not available for screening or searching. It contains four separate attributes:

Name/Proper noun may be geographic, personal, or other.

Personal name may be deity or human (or supernatural/natural)

Human may be group or individual.

Individual may be female, male or unspecified.

Not encoded in icon. Group may be emic or etic OR may be collective or distributive.

QUESTION: What is meant by emic or etic?

SOFTWARE: A simple search of your books with an argument such as “emic OR etic” show that this distinction is used in a number of commentaries. Note that etic name often need to be examined for potential negative meaning.

ANSWER: Selected for conciseness:

“Although “the Way” (hē hodos, 24:14) is Lukan technical language for the Jesus movement, the term connects with some of the richest parts of the biblical tradition.151 Luke’s formulation here suggests that “the Way” is insiders’ language, whereas “a sect” is outsiders’ language; to use anthropological categories, the former is emic identification, the latter etic description. [1]”

Here, we must turn to that recent scholarship which is sensitive to reading the Tanakh for what is epistemologically native, or emic, to the text even though we necessarily read with our own epistemological constructs foreign, or etic, to those texts. [2]

QUESTION: Is a group name emic or etic?

SOFTWARE: Logos does not capture this information and often the text ignores the question. You must rely on the Search to find the answer and, one hopes, justify it. I do this in a series of three searches which correspond to my preferences for sources of the information.

  1. [group name] WITHIN 50 WORDS (emic OR etic) as a book search.
  2. Is [group name] emic or etic? as an all search.
  3. Is [group name] emic or etic? as a Perplexity query.

Example answers for “Pharisee.”

Book search produced no results.

All search begins its synopsis with “The terms "emic" and "etic" are not directly associated with Pharisees in the provided articles, “ then deals with the emic/etic distinction more broadly.

Perplexity provides an extensive answer: “The term "Pharisee" can be considered both emic and etic, depending on the context and perspective:

Emic perspective:

1. In its original historical context, "Pharisee" was an emic term used by members of this Jewish sect to identify themselves. It referred to a specific group within Second Temple Judaism with distinct beliefs and practices.

2. For contemporary Orthodox Jews who see themselves as spiritual descendants of the Pharisees, the term may still have emic significance.

Etic perspective:

1. In modern academic study of ancient Judaism, "Pharisee" is often used as an etic category by scholars to classify and analyze this historical group.

2. For many Christians, especially those without deep knowledge of Jewish history, "Pharisee" functions as an etic term to describe a group they encounter in New Testament narratives.

3. In popular usage, particularly in Christian contexts, "Pharisee" has taken on a pejorative meaning of "hypocrite" or "self-righteous person," which is an etic application of the term far removed from its original context.

The dual nature of "Pharisee" as both emic and etic highlights how terms can shift in meaning and usage over time and across cultural boundaries. In contemporary religious studies and historical analysis, scholars strive to understand both the emic significance of the term in its original context and its various etic applications in later interpretations and discourse.

Citations:

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emic_and_etic 

[2] https://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/emic-and-etic 

[3] https://easysociology.com/research-methods/emic-and-etic-analysis-in-sociology/”

Example answers for “Canaanite”

Book search produced results that serve as a warning I may be on a fool’s mission: “Strange as it sounds there may be no satisfying analysis available of the ancient names of this tiny piece of land. Was it in fact really called ‘Palestine’ in antiquity, for example, by its own inhabitants? I very much doubt it. In my book about the Canaanites50 I made use of the emic/etic distinction as it has been applied by students of the concept of ethnicity between how people see themselves and how they are described by foreigners. In that volume the emic/etic distinction was used to explain the fact that there are no recordings from ancient times that the ancient Canaanites ever understood themselves to be Canaanites. Rather this was always a name which popped up when somebody in a more or less casual manner referred to the inhabitants of the south-western part of the Levant.51[3]”

All search results parallel those for Pharisee

Perplexity again provides an extensive answer: Based on the information provided in the search results, the term "Canaanite" can be considered both emic and etic, depending on the context and time period:

Etic aspects:

1. In modern academic and archaeological contexts, "Canaanite" is often used as an etic category to describe the ancient inhabitants of the Levant region[1][3].

2. The term is frequently used by scholars to classify and analyze historical groups, religious practices, and material culture[1][2].

3. In the Hebrew Bible, "Canaanite" is often used as an etic term to describe various groups living in the land promised to the Israelites[3].

Emic aspects:

1. There is evidence that some ancient people identified themselves or others as "Canaanites" in certain contexts. For example, administrative texts from Alalakh and Ugarit show that individuals could be identified as "man of Canaan" or "son of Canaan"[3].

2. However, it's important to note that ancient writers seldom designated their own communities as Canaanite. More localized identifications were likely more common[2].

3. The term "Canaan" originally referred to a geographical area rather than a specific ethnic or cultural group[2].

It's worth noting that the use and meaning of the term "Canaanite" have evolved over time. In ancient contexts, it was primarily a geographical designation that could sometimes be used as a broad cultural identifier. In modern scholarship, it has become more of an etic category used to study and classify ancient Near Eastern peoples and cultures.

The complexity of this term highlights the challenges in applying modern concepts of ethnicity and identity to ancient contexts, and the need for nuanced understanding when using such terms in historical and religious studies.

Citations:

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaanite_religion 

[2] https://people.brandonu.ca/nollk/canaanite-religion/ 

[3] https://www.livescience.com/56016-canaanites.html 

[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaanism

While I was unable to coax appropriate answers out of the all search of Logos/Verbum, Perplexity provided interesting information on questions such as “If Canaanite is an etic term, what is the corresponding emic term?” This illustrates the degree to which asking questions, even it you know there is no single, consensus answer, can add to your understanding.

Based on the information provided in the search results, there doesn't appear to be a single, clear-cut emic term that corresponds directly to the etic term "Canaanite". Here are the key points to consider:

1. "Canaanite" was primarily a geographic designation rather than an ethnic or cultural identifier. It referred to people living in the land of Canaan, which roughly corresponded to the eastern Mediterranean coastal region.

2. Ancient people living in this area typically did not self-identify as "Canaanites". As the text states: "Ancient writers seldom designated their own communities Canaanite."

3. More localized identifications were common. People were more likely to identify themselves by their city or specific region of origin rather than the broader term "Canaanite".

4. The Bible mentions various groups living in Canaan (e.g., Jebusites, Hivites, etc.), but these are difficult to differentiate archaeologically and may not represent distinct ethnic identities.

5. In some contexts, people from Canaan living elsewhere might be identified in records as "man of Canaan" or "son of Canaan", but this was an external designation rather than self-identification.

6. The term "Canaan" itself referred to the land, not to a specific ethnic or cultural group.

Given these points, it's important to understand that the concept of a unified "Canaanite" identity is largely an etic construction. The people living in the region would have had various local and regional identities, but there isn't evidence of a single emic term that encompasses all these groups in the way that "Canaanite" is used as an etic category.

Citations:

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaan 

[2] https://www.abarim-publications.com/Meaning/Canaan.html 

[3] https://www.livescience.com/56016-canaanites.html 

[4] https://people.brandonu.ca/nollk/canaanite-religion/ 

QUESTION: How does grammatical gender relate to biological gender of Biblical people?

SOFTWARE: The “All” search with a prompt such as “For Biblical people, what is the relationship of biological gender to the grammatical gender of their name?” is the starting point for questions such as this.

ANSWER: The generated synopsis is a satisfactory answer.

The relationship between grammatical gender and biological gender in Biblical names is complex and not always straightforward. While there is generally a high correlation between grammatical and biological gender for human beings, exceptions exist[1]. Some male figures have names with feminine grammatical forms, such as Jonah, Micah, and Judah, while the -ah suffix, typically associated with feminine names, appears in both male and female names[1]. Certain names, like Shelomith and Gomer, are used for both genders in different contexts[1]. It's important to note that determining the gender of biblical characters often requires additional contextual information, such as relational nouns or associated verb forms, as names alone may not provide sufficient indication[1]. The issue is further complicated by the fact that in Hebrew and Greek, all nouns have grammatical gender, which doesn't necessarily correspond to biological gender[2]. This linguistic feature has led to challenges in translation and interpretation, particularly when it comes to gender-inclusive language and references to divine entities[3]. Ultimately, the relationship between grammatical and biological gender in Biblical names is not always clear-cut and requires careful consideration of context and linguistic nuances[1][2].

[1] Wilda C. Gafney, Womanist Midrash: A Reintroduction to the Women of the Torah and the Throne, First Edition (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2017), 289.

[2] Gordon D. Fee and Mark L. Strauss, How to Choose a Translation for All Its Worth: A Guide to Understanding and Using Bible Versions (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007), 98.

[3] Sharon H. Ringe, “When Women Interpret the Bible,” in Women’s Bible Commentary, ed. Carol A. Newsom and Jacqueline E. Lapsley, Revised and Updated (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2012), 6.

Examples of gender mismatches are:

  • Abijah (1 Kings 14:31) meaning "my father is Yahweh" is a masculine name but refers to a woman (Rehoboam's mother).
  • Shelomith (Leviticus 24:11) is a feminine name but refers to a man (father of a blasphemer).
  • Noah (Numbers 26:33, 27:1) is typically a masculine name, but refers to one of Zelophehad's daughters.
  • Athaliah (2 Kings 11:1-3) has a masculine name ending but refers to a queen of Judah.
  • Huldah (2 Kings 22:14-20) is a feminine name meaning "weasel," but some argue it could be masculine.
  • Jehoaddan (2 Kings 14:2) has a masculine name ending but refers to the mother of King Amaziah.
  • Micaiah (1 Kings 22:8-28) can be both masculine and feminine but refers to a male prophet.

Proceed with caution when commentators read too much into this phenomenon.

 

QUESTION: What is the difference between a collective use of a name and the distributive use of a name?

ANSWER: From Perplexity:

Based on the search results provided, there doesn't appear to be direct information specifically comparing collective and distributive names. However, I can infer some key differences between collective and distributive interpretations of names and noun phrases from the linguistic and semantic information given:

1. Interpretation:

- Collective names refer to a group as a whole unit.

- Distributive names refer to individual members of a group separately.

2. Semantic meaning:

- Collective: The predicate applies to the entire group together.

- Distributive: The predicate applies to each individual member of the group.

3. Examples:

- Collective: "The team lifted the trophy" (one action by the whole group)

- Distributive: "The students each received a prize" (multiple individual actions)

4. Quantifiers:

- Collective interpretations are often associated with quantifiers like "the" or "some".

- Distributive interpretations are typically unambiguous with quantifiers like "each" or "every".

5. Ambiguity:

- Many plural noun phrases can be ambiguous between collective and distributive readings.

- Context often disambiguates the intended meaning.

6. Logical representation:

- Collective interpretations treat the group as a single entity.

- Distributive interpretations use logical operators to distribute the predicate over individuals.

7. Implications for agreement:

- Collective names may take singular verb agreement in some cases.

- Distributive interpretations typically require plural verb agreement.

While not explicitly defined in the given context, these differences highlight how collective and distributive interpretations affect the semantic understanding of names and noun phrases referring to groups.

Citations:

[1] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3819043/ 

[2] https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15475441.2020.1863808 

[3] https://easysociology.com/sociology-of-power/collective-and-distributive-power-in-sociology/ 

[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature 

[5] https://hdsr.mitpress.mit.edu/pub/wgss79vu/release/2 

Devilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature 

[7] https://www.enago.com/academy/how-to-write-scientific-names-in-a-research-paper-animals-plants/ 

Musichttps://cdn.aaai.org/ojs/8324/8324-13-11852-1-2-20201228.pdf 

TOPIC: Name.Name category 

QUESTION: What are common categories of personal names?

ANSWER: These distinctions are often supported by words ending in -onym, patronym, matronym, and pseudonym being common examples. Gemini was asked to provide definitions for -onym words associated with names in resources in the Logos/Verbum library. Terms that are common across all vocabulary such as synonym are omitted unless their use is surprising.

Family-Based Names

  • Patronym: A name derived from the father's name.
    • Synonyms: father's name, paternal name
    • Matronym: A name derived from the mother's name.
      • Synonyms: mother's name, maternal name

Acronyms and Abbreviations

  • Acronym: A word formed from the initial letters of a group of words.
    • Synonyms: initialism
    • Allonym: A pseudonym that is identical to another person's name.
    • Anachronym: An acronym that is formed from words that were not in use at the time the acronym was created.
    • Andronym: A pseudonym that is a gender-swapped version of a real name.
    • Anonym: A person whose name is unknown or withheld.
      • Synonyms: anonymous person
      • Autonym: A name that is the same as the person's real name.
      • Caconym: A word that sounds unpleasant or offensive.
      • Cryptonym: A code name or pseudonym used for secrecy or anonymity.

Place-Based Names

  • Demonym: A name derived from a place.
    • Synonyms: place name, geographical name
    • Endonym: A name used by the native people of a place.
    • Exonym: A name used by outsiders to refer to a place or people.
    • Eponym: A person, place, or thing after whom or for which someone or something is named.
    • Ethnonym: A name given to an ethnic group.
    • Heteronym: A word that is spelled the same as another word but has a different meaning and pronunciation.
    • Homonym: A word that is spelled and pronounced the same as another word but has a different meaning.
    • Hyponym: A word that is a more specific example of a broader category.
    • Loconym: A name given to a place.
      • Synonyms: place name, geographical name

Other Names

  • Matronym: A name derived from the mother's name.
    • Synonyms: mother's name, maternal name
    • Pseudonym: A false name assumed by a person.
      • Synonyms: pen name, alias
      • Retronym: A term that is created to distinguish an older version of something from a newer version.
      • Satanonym: A name that is considered evil or offensive.
      • Teknonym: A name derived from a child's name.
      • Theonym: A name derived from a deity or divine being.
      • Toponym: A name given to a place.
        • Synonyms: place name, geographical name
        • Typonym: A name given to a type or kind of thing.

 

QUESTION: How do I learn that part of this vocabulary that I actually need to know?

SOFTWARE: My method is very simple. Run a search against my books with the word as a simple text argument. If the word is found, I copy a result as an example of the word. If the word is not found in my library, I strike it from my list. I’ll learn it whenever I run into it. Here are the examples of the use of these terms I found in my Logos/Verbum books.

Anthroponym and patronym:

“Names comprise a variety of items that identify a specific category or individual in contrast to those related to it. In English, names are often marked by capitalizing the first letter of the word. While personal names (anthroponyms) constitute the largest example of the category of names, other kinds of names relevant to the periods and literature discussed here include place names (toponyms), divine names, and terms for ethnic or cultural identities (gentilics). We begin by briefly considering a definition and some general characteristics of each of these four types of name.

Personal names identify individual human beings, whether historical figures or fictional characters found in literature. In the modern Western world, names possess reference but not meaning. That is to say, they designate the name bearer but they do not consciously evoke meaning in the language in which they are used. While we may be interested in the etymologies of our names, most parents choose names for their children under the influence of factors such as their sound or popularity or their association with someone they admire, perhaps a relative or a famous figure. While all of these factors could influence the choice of personal names in the ancient world, the names chosen regularly carried an etymological meaning that was apparent to speakers of the language used by the parents and the child so named. Therefore, in ancient times names had both reference and sense.

While every society has its own naming customs, several consistent factors govern the giving of personal names. One is that some part of the name often relates the name bearer to his or her father (patronym) and, less often, to a larger family or place of origin. An important point that complements this observation is that the general elements and structures of personal names in any society evolve and change over time. While exceptions exist in every context, an overall onomastic profile emerges according to the spatial and temporal location of a group of names. This enables one to compare a given collection of names in the Bible or elsewhere and identify the likely place and time in which those names best fit. In terms of the OT, personal names often carry obvious etymologies or sounds similar to Hebrew words that relate to the narrative or other context in which they occur. This seems to be a deliberate means by which names relate to the surrounding stories, just as name bearers may participate in the events the stories describe.[4]”

Acryonym

Traces connections between David, Adam, and Messiah in biblical and rabbinic literature. Considers Jesus’ use of the title Son of Man in light of the possibility that he was referring to himself as Son of Adam. The eschatological Son of Man = Paul’s Second Adam can present the basic connection between the synoptic and Pauline Christology. In the Jewish Cabala the Spirit of Adam and of David and of the Messiah is one and the same, summed up by the acryonym adm, the consonantal letters of Adam.[5]

Allonym

The production and consumption of fermented beverages in Europe and the Near East antedates by millennia the onset of written attestation. In the Indo-European area the honey-brew mead held sway (Vedic mádhu-, Old Irish mid, Old English meodo; cf. Tocharian B mit, Lithuanian medùs, Old Church Slavic medŭ “honey”). In the more temperate zone the term could be transferred to grape products (Greek μέθυ, Avestan madu-, Farsi may, Luwian maddu- “wine”), unless an areal word prevailed (Hittite wiyana-, Armenian gini, Greek οἶνος, Latin vīnum). A trace of the “honey” sense in Anatolia may linger in the toponymURUMi-id-du-wa (KBo 5.8 IV 18), allonym of the later Melitene (Turkish Malatya; cf. Hittite melit-, Luwian mallit- “honey”).Devil

Anachronym

However, some suggest that “Babylon” is an anachronym for Rome because of its comparable luxury and increasing decadence.[7]

Andronym

In Lb. 1269 (Larissa) Πουτάλα Πουταλεία κόρα Τιτυρεία γυνά, we have an instance of an andronym (cf. note on no. 240 a above). Azoros is (1) a town of Pelagonia in Upper Macedonia, Strab. 7. 327, (2) a town in the Perrhaebic territory on the Macedonian Olympus. Ptol. iii. 13, 42; Pol. 28, 11; D. Sic. 19, 52.Music

Anonym

Guard this, etc. Said R. Huna: If the depositary said: “Leave it here for you,” he is not a gratuitous bailee and not a bailee for hire (i.e., he has no responsibility whatever, as it can be understood to mean: “You, yourself can guard it in this place”). The schoolmen propounded a question: If he said: “Leave it anonymously,” how is the law? Come and hear: “Guard it for me,” and he answered, “Leave it here for me,” he is considered a gratuitous bailee; from which is to be inferred that, if an anonym, he is not considered a bailee at all.[9]

Autonym

The autonym of “euphemism” is “cacophemism,” the application of expressions of contempt to desirable objects. The basis of the use of cacophemisms seems to be the wide-spread fear that too great happiness may attract envy (see Evil Eye). It was thought to avert this by giving a bad name to the thing which was in reality highly esteemed. The best-known though almost isolated example of this kind in Hebrew is כושית = “the Ethiopian woman” (Num. 12:1), which, according to Rashi, stands for “beautiful woman,” and is so translated by the Targum of Onḳelos.[10]

Caconym

This passage does not describe Baal-zebub in detail, possibly because the deity was well-known, or its etymology hinted not at its real existence, but at its theological implications. Thus, it seems likely that Baalzebub (“lord of the flies”) is a caconym of Baalzebul (“prince of Baal”), the actual Canaanite deity worshiped at Ekron (for further information, see this article: Ekron). However, Tångberg contends that the association of “fly” with Baal is not derogatory, but merely descriptive, based on the provenance and positive, fly-like depictions of other Semitic gods (“A Note,” 295–96). [11]

Cryptonym

Likewise, the theory that “the land of Damascus” refers to Babylon also falls prey to this criticism. If, as Murphy O’Connor argued, the sect had its origins in sixth century BCE Babylon, it would have been futile to have attempted to “protect” such knowledge by hiding the fact under a cryptonym.[12]

Demonym

On 1 Samuel 17:54, see Hoffmeier, “David’s Strange Antics.” Goliath is not referred to by name here. In OT narrative, the form of designating individuals is dictated by the point of view of the participants. The readers know Goliath’s name. But to David he was just his opponent, הַפְּלִשְׁתִּי (happelishtiy) (“the Philistine”). Use of the simple gentilic (or “demonym”) also focuses on Goliath’s principal role in the narrative—that of representing the Philistines—and expresses social distancing. Czövek sees in the tent and Jerusalem symbols of David’s military leadership and its challenge.[13]

Endonym and exonym

Of course, social identities are always more complex than “we are the sons of Jacob,” so there is more theoretical ground to cover before we focus on ethnicity as it relates to ancient Israel and its history-writing. In order to facilitate this discussion of ethnicity, we need to introduce several technical terms, beginning with the word pairs emic/etic and endonym/exonym. It is important when discussing identity to differentiate between emic and etic points of view. The emic point of view is the insider’s perspective, while the etic view is that of an outsider. So, for instance, when the first Europeans in North America described the natives as “Indians,” this was an etic rather than emic perspective. Emic perspectives would have produced a very different set of names, such as the Iroquois, the Dakota and the Cherokee peoples. Because the term Indian was placed upon Native Americans from without, scholars refer to this name as an exonym (coined by etic outsiders) rather than as an endonym (coined by emic insiders). In certain respects, however, distinctions such as this are difficult to preserve in practice. Although the “Indian” label was an exonym created from an etic point of view, eventually it was adopted by Native Americans and so became an emic description of their identity.[14]

Enonym

Ishbak (יִשְׁבָּק).—A son of Abraham by Keturah, Gn 25:2 = 1 Ch 1:32. In Gn the LXX has, A ‘Ἰεσβόκ (so Luc.), D Ἰεσβούκ, E Ἰεσόκ, in 1 Ch B Σοβάκ, A Ἰεσβόκ. The tribe of which he is the enonym is somewhat uncertain, although Frd. Delitzsch (ZSKF ii. 92) identifies it with Iasbuḳ of the cuneiform inscriptions, where it is mentioned as a land (māt) whose king was allied with Sangara (Shamgar?) of Gargamis (Carchemish) and others against Assur-naẓir-pal and Shalmaneser II. (c. 859 B.C.). Dillmann and Delitzsch point out that the name has nothing to do with Shanbaḳ in the Jebel esh-Shera, which is not heard of till the time of the Crusades.[15]

Eponym

According to the eponym list, Tiglath-pileser III undertook three campaigns in the southern Levant between 734 and 732. In the canon, they are registered as “against Philistine” in 734, “against Damascus” in 733 and “against Damascus” in 732.[16]

Ethnonym

East, People of the [Heb bĕnê qedem (בְּנֵי קֶדֶם)]. “People of the East” is a literal and succinct translation of Heb bĕnê qedem. The expression occurs ten times in the OT. According to the place and time of the speaker, “people of the east” comprises various tribes and people. The geographical derivation of a generic ethnonym is not peculiar to Hebrew. In the story of Sinuhe (20th century b.c.), qdm is the region E of the Phoenician coastal cities. In the late 19th century a.d., the peasants of central Transjordan referred to the bedouin as ahâlî aš-šarq “people of the east” or šarqîyah “easterners” (Musil 1908: 22). The latter expression still provides the most probable etymology for the Gk/Lat term sarakênoi/saraceni (cf. O’Connor 1986 for a different view).[17]

Heteronym

He deliberately ignores the account of the second through sixth days’ activities (which he cites below [XIII, 100–101]) to ask why God was tired if all he had to do was to say “Be,” for the world to come into being. One hears here an echo of a Jewish heteronym for God, “He who spoke and the world came into being.” [18]

Homonym

He is just like his name. There is a Hebrew word nabal, “fool,” but surely Nabal’s name did not have this meaning. It was probably derived from a homonym meaning “noble” or “adept” (see HALOT, 663–64). But Abigail, playing off the homonym “fool,” suggests that his name matches his character, for he displays “folly” (nebalah, related to nabal, “fool”).[19]

Hyponym

Biblical Hebrew טף is polysemous between the superordinate term ‘dependents’ and its hyponym ‘children’. The argument for the former sense was first advanced by Ludwig Koehler and recently extended and clarified by Clemens Locher[20]

Loconym

Gregory spent his entire adult life at the monastery of Narek, not far from the southernmost shore of Lake Van, in what was the province of Rĕshtunik‘ within the kingdom of Vaspurakan. Consequently, in Armenian he is invariably called Narekats‘i, after the place with which he is always associated (this loconym will be used every now and then as a cognomen).[21]

Matronym

Jacob identifies himself as the son of Rebekah (ben Rivqah) but does not mention Isaac or even Abraham in Genesis 29:12. Other persons in the Scriptures identified by their mother’s names include David’s chief warriors—and nephews—Joab, Abner, and Abishai, the sons of Zeruiah, who is David’s sister, more than two dozen times in Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, for example, 2 Samuel 19:21–22; 1 Chronicles 2:16. In the case of Rebekah, the use of the matronym is associated with matrilineality; her home is a beyt ’em, “a mother’s household” (Gen. 24:28), not the more common beyt ’av, “a father’s household.” Other matrilineal households in the Scriptures include the families of origin of Ruth and Orpah in Ruth 1:8 and the bride in the Song of Solomon 3:4 and 8:2.[22]

Pseudonym

Like many Jewish authors writing around the turn of the Common Era, the author of 2 Baruch decided not to reveal his own name but to write instead under a pseudonym. He wrote in the name of a biblical figure, Baruch, who in the Hebrew Bible is the confidant and scribe of the prophet Jeremiah. Baruch is mentioned four times in the book of Jeremiah (in chaps. 32, 36, 43, and 45), and even though we learn a bit more about him each time he appears, in the end he remains in the shadow of the prophet Jeremiah, and his character is largely undeveloped. In the last of these texts, in Jeremiah 45, a short oracle to Baruch, God announces that God will bring disaster upon all flesh but that Baruch will be spared and receive his life “as a prize of war” (Jer. 45:5). In other words, God promises Baruch that he will survive the impending doom. Baruch’s close association with the destruction of Jerusalem and the Babylonian exile, the oracle that promises him life, and the fact that he is a scribe may help explain why Baruch became a popular pseudonym in postbiblical times, especially for those authors who wrote about the desecration and destruction of Jerusalem, the exile, and the future of Israel.[23]

Retronym

An inauguration of apostolicity can be seen when Jesus renames Simon as “Peter,” referring to his function as the rock on which the kingdom is built. Cephas is the Aramaic of the Greek word Petros, and both are used to refer to Peter. The Gospels interchangeably use his retronym, “Simon who was called Peter” (Matt. 4:18), and his combined name, “Simon Peter” (Luke 5:8). His prominent leadership is recognized by Paul on the latter’s reception into the fellowship of the apostles. There Peter is called a “pillar,” along with John and James the brother of Jesus (Gal. 2:9).[24]

Satanonym

Does this satanological knowledge stem from the Ascension? Bərəyâl is the Vulgate reading of the Ethiopic version of the Ascension; only a minority of manuscripts has the reading Bǝlǝyâr10 whereas the standard version of the Greek satanonym *Βελιαλ < Βελιαλ in Ethiopia appeared to be Belḥor/Belḫor/Belhor (preserved both in Jub 1.20 and in 2 Cor 6:15).[25]

Teknonym

Again, a certain devout Christian reported to us that he heard about the following miracle of the excellent and holy Mar George from Būluṣ Ibn Hibah, who had the teknonym Abū al-Layth, one of the administrative secretaries (kuttāb) of the Arabs, the Banū Jarrāḥ.[26]

Theonym

The situation would seem to be different with respect to the god Ṣulmu. The cult of this deity is attested for the city of Taima in north-west Arabia. Several inscriptions in Imperial Aramaic mention the god ṣlm. The theonym occurs by itself and as an element in such theophoric names as Ṣlm-šzb (KAI 228; cf. Akk Ṣalmu-ušēzib, ‘Ṣalmu-has-saved’). The transcriptions Sulmus in Latin, and Σολμος in Greek texts indicate that the name was pronouced Ṣulmu. Since this god had the winged sun-disk as his symbol (Dalley 1986), it is possible that Ṣulmu was originally the personified image of the sun-god.30 This symbol need not have been anthropomorphic; the Akkadian word ṣalmu ‘could refer not only to statues or symbols (such as šurinnu), but also to stelae with representations in relief …’ (Livingstone 1995:841). The case of Ṣulmu might therefore be closer to those of Bethel, Sakkun and Abnu than it would seem to be at first sight. If Abnu indeed refers to a cult symbol of Šamaš of Larsa, as we have speculated, Ṣulmu would provide a striking parallel.[27]

Toponym

That David was transporting the ark with mixed motives is demonstrated when he asked how he could bring the ark to himself. The ark would become central to Israel’s worship, but David needed to learn that it was not his to control. Here it seems as if David was defeated by Yahweh, and was accordingly unwilling to have such a dangerous object as the ark in his city. Instead, he sent it to the house of a Gittite called Obed Edom. 1 Chr. 15:17–19 indicates he was a Levite, so ‘Gittite’ cannot mean he was from the Philistine city of Gath but that he was from an Israelite town (such as Gath Rimmon or Gath Padalla, mentioned in the Amarna letters 250.11–14; see Anderson 1989: 105) that used ‘Gath’ (which means ‘wine-press’) within the toponym. Here Yahweh blessed Obed Edom and his house, suggesting that the ark was a source of hope where Yahweh’s holiness was properly regarded.[28]

Typonym

The identity of the pentecostal spirit is fluid, rhizomatic, improvising its form and dynamics both in melodic harmony with its cultural milieu and in rejection of it. Identity is the taking-place of subjectivity. This is to say at once three things: the exposure of the innermost properness of a subject, the face or exteriority of the pliable limits of subjectivity, and the typonym of the multidirectional passageway from common (potentiality) to proper (act). It is in this movement of subjectivity, as the subject subjects herself to her context, of which she is both a subject and the same time subject over, that she is able to grasp and determine her proper taking-place in the time gap and thus express her fluid identity[29]


151 As in Gen 18:19; Exod 32:8; Deut 9:12, 16; 11:28; 13:5; 31:29; Judg 2:17, 22; 2 Kgs 21:22; Ps 119:33; Prov 8:20; Isa 30:21; 40:3; 48:17; Jer 5:4; 2 Esd 4:2; 5:34. On the use at Qumran of “the way” or “the path” without further qualifiers, see comments on Acts 9:2, with references.

[1] Carl R. Holladay, Acts: A Commentary, First edition, The New Testament Library (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2016), 450.

[2] Dru Johnson, Biblical Knowing: A Scriptural Epistemology of Error (Cascade Books: Eugene, OR, 2013), 187.

50 The Canaanites and Their Land: The Tradition of the Canaanites (JSOTSup, 110; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991), cf. esp. p. 51 n. 99.

51 In spite of N. Na’aman’s seemingly devastating criticism of that book of mine (N. Na’aman, ‘The Canaanites and their Land: A Rejoinder’, UF 26 [1994, app. 1995], pp. 397–418), I will remain loyal to my ideas of ancient Canaan; see also my answer, ‘Where Should we Look for Canaan? A Reply to Nadav Na’aman’, UF 28 (forthcoming).

[3] Niels Peter Lemche, “Clio Is Also among the Muses! Keith W. Whitelam and the History of Palestine: A Review and a Commentary,” in Can a “History of Israel” Be Written?, ed. Grabbe Lester L. (London; New York: T&T Clark, 2004), 152.

OT Old Testament

[4] Richard S. Hess, “Names,” in Dictionary of Daily Life in Biblical & Post-Biblical Antiquity (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2016), 429–430.

[5] William Sailer et al., Religious and Theological Abstracts (Myerstown, PA: Religious and Theological Abstracts, 2012).

Devil Jaan Puhvel, “Barm and Balm, Hittite Style,” Journal of Cuneiform Studies 63 (2011): 103.

[7] Inc Thomas Nelson, The Woman’s Study Bible (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1995), 1 Pe 5:13.

Music E. S. Roberts, An Introduction to Greek Epigraphy, Part I: The Archaic Inscriptions and the Greek Alphabet (Cambridge: Cambridge at the University Press, 1887), 247.

[9] Michael L. Rodkinson, trans., The Babylonian Talmud: Original Text, Edited, Corrected, Formulated, and Translated into English, vol. 12 (Boston, MA: The Talmud Society, 1918), 205.

[10] Isidore Singer, ed., The Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day, 12 Volumes (New York; London: Funk & Wagnalls, 1901–1906), 268.

[11] Charles Meeks, “Beelzebul,” in The Concise Lexham Bible Dictionary, ed. John D. Barry et al. (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2021).

[12] Thomas R. Blanton IV, Constructing a New Covenant: Discursive Strategies in the Damascus Document and Second Corinthians, ed. Jörg Frey, vol. 233, Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen Zum Neuen Testament (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2007), 83.

OT Old Testament

[13] Harry A. Hoffner Jr., 1 & 2 Samuel, Evangelical Exegetical Commentary (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2015), 1 Sa 17:54.

[14] K. L. Sparks, “Ethnicity,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Historical Books, ed. Bill T. Arnold and H. G. M. Williamson (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2005), 268–269.

[15]  James Hastings et al., eds., “ISHBAK,” in A Dictionary of the Bible: Dealing with Its Language, Literature, and Contents Including the Biblical Theology (New York; Edinburgh: Charles Scribner’s Sons; T. & T. Clark, 1911–1912), 501.

 

[16] Volkmar Fritz, A Continental Commentary: 1 & 2 Kings (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003), 336.

 

[17] Ernst Axel Knauf, “East, People of the,” in The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary, ed. David Noel Freedman (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 249.

[18] Jacob Neusner, The Age of Shapur II, vol. IV, A History of the Jews in Babylonia (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2008), 420.

HALOT Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Revised by W. Baumgartner and J. J. Stamm. Translated and edited by M. E. J. Richardson. 2 vols. Boston: Brill, 2001

[19] Robert B. Chisholm Jr., 1 & 2 Samuel, ed. Mark L. Strauss, John H

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