TIP OF THE DAY 156: Multi-part lexical unit part 1: fixed phrases

MJ. Smith

I am adding these posts to the previous tip list L/V 10 Tip of the Day (when it doesn't time out)

POST ISSUE: Multi-part lexical units (MWLUs)/Multi-words expressions (MWE’s)

In Logos/Verbum we generally deal with:

morpheme — The smallest grammatical unit of a language that conveys meaning.[1]

lexeme — A lexical unit apart from any specific forms the word may take. For example, dābār (“word”), debar (“word of”), debārim (“words”), and debārāv (“his words”) all reflect the same underlying lexeme: dābār (“word”).[2]

sememe (ˈsiːmiːm) n linguistics1 the meaning of a morpheme 2 Also called semanteme a minimum unit of meaning in terms of which it is sometimes proposed that meaning in general might be analysed [c20 (coined in 1933 by Leonard Bloomfield (1887–1949), US linguist): from Greek sēma a sign + -eme][3]

Multi-part lexical units (MWLUs) are two or more words that function as a single grammatical or semantic unit. They often have meanings that cannot be entirely derived from their individual components. Think idioms, fixed expressions, phrasal verbs . . .

Phraseme  refers to any multi-word or multi-morphemic expression where at least one component is constrained by linguistic convention. They made be non-compositional i.e. the meaning cannot be derived from the parts (bucket list) or compositional where meaning aligns with the parts but is standardized (stark naked)

In this post we consider the various types of MWLUs that relate to Biblical texts, first looking at a definition and example in English, then examples in Biblical Hebrew or Koine Greek. While a preference for temporal examples is presence, I have chosen examples that broadly illustrate the use of lexical units above the “word”.

QUESTION: Define “fixed phrase”; give examples in English, Biblical Hebrew, and Biblical Koine Greek

SOFTWARE: A smart search on “fixed phrase” will find a number of entries in grammars and dictionaries along with the related Bible references.

ANSWER: Definition: A fixed phrase is a set combination of words that functions as a single unit of meaning and cannot be altered without sounding unnatural or losing its intended meaning. These phrases are "fixed" in their wording, meaning that changes to the order, choice of words, or grammatical structure will make them sound odd or incorrect, even if the literal meaning remains similar. English Example: To whom it may concern.

From Vos, Geerhardus. The Eschatology of the Old Testament. Edited by James T. Dennison Jr. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2001.

Just as we say the end of all things will be judgment and salvation (or judgment and resurrection), so Israel of old affirmed the same two-sidedness: darkness and light were combined in their consciousness about it, although it seems that by some the two aspects were distributed over the two main groups of the people. Since that time, “Day of Jehovah” remained a fixed phrase in biblical eschatology. It passes over from the Old into the New Testament. Paul and the early Christians were just as familiar with it as was Amos. Isaiah (2:12; 10:3; 13:6, 9; 34:8; 61:2), Zephaniah (1:14–16), Joel (1:15), and Malachi (4:1, 5) carry on the tradition to the very end of the old dispensation. To be sure, afterwards, it becomes wedded to messianic eschatology. Hence in the New Testament it is sometimes difficult to tell whether “the Day of the Lord” means the Day of God or the Day of Christ.[4]

From Talbert, Betty J. “Homily Form in Hellenistic and Early Christianity.” In The Concise Lexham Bible Dictionary, edited by John D. Barry, David Bomar, Derek R. Brown, Rachel Klippenstein, Douglas Mangum, Carrie Sinclair Wolcott, Lazarus Wentz, Elliot Ritzema, and Wendy Widder. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2021.

Lawrence Wills sees the phrase “word of exhortation” (logos parakleseos) in Acts 13:14–41 and Heb 1–4, 8–12 as combining three elements that “can be traced to innovations in Greek oratory in the fifth century bc” (e.g., Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War; Plato’s Menexenus). The three elements are:

exempla (introduction, Scripture, exegetical argument)

conclusion (the point)

exhortation (encouragement to action)

He argues that these elements can appear alone in the New Testament (Acts 13:13–41) or stand as “building blocks” of a cyclical pattern in a longer sermon (e.g., Heb 1:5–4:16; 8:1–12:28). Wills further notes that Hellenistic Jewish literature like 1 Maccabees 10:24 and 2 Maccabees 7:24 also contains the phrase “word of exhortation.” He thus suggests the New Testament used this fixed phrase in a way that was unconventional for earlier Greek or Roman rhetoricians (Wills, “The Form of the Sermon,” 280).[5]

From Balz, Horst Robert, and Gerhard Schneider. Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1990–.

b) In the NT only Acts 5:21 uses ὑπό temporally: ὑπὸτὸνὄρθρον, “toward / just at daybreak” (cf. Jos. As. 11:1). Ὑπό does not occur in the NT writings in fixed phrases and idioms such as ὑφʼἕν, at one stroke (cf. Wis 12:9; Barn. 4:4), or ὑπὸχεῖρα, continually (Josephus Ant. xii.185; Herm. Vis. iii.10.7; Man. iv.3.6; cf. BAGD s.v. 2.d).[6]

From Seybold, K. “חָפַךְ.” In Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, edited by G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, translated by David E. Green, III:423–27. Grand Rapids, MI; Cambridge, U.K.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1978.

1. Idioms. Characteristic of hāphakh is its use in more or less fixed phrases and idioms. Flat bread is turned when being baked (Hos. 7:8), bowls are turned upside down (2 K. 21:13), chariots are overthrown (Hag. 2:22); sometimes the word is used of a throne (Hag. 2:22; CTA, 6 [I AB], VI, 28; KAI, 1.2), more frequently of a city (Gen. 19:21, 25, 29; Dt. 29:22 [Eng. v. 23]; 2 S. 10:3 [par., see below]; Jer. 20:16; Jonah 3:4; Lam. 4:6). In combination with yādh, “hand,” it is an idiom for changing the direction of a chariot “by twisting the hand that holds the reins” (1 K. 22:34 par.; 2 K. 9:23); as a repeated action (with shûbh) it is a gesture of rejection (Lam. 3:3). Used absolutely, it usually means “turn around” (Jgs. 20:39, 41; 2 K. 5:26; etc.; cf. Josh. 7:8); occasionally, as in Aramaic, it can mean “wander about” (in a place), the probable meaning in 1 Ch. 19:3 (2 S. 10:3?). In the context of archery, it can refer to the twisting of the bow (Ps. 78:57; cf. v. 9 conj.). The infinitive absolute serves to indicate the reversal of an action (“vice versa”; Est. 9:1; cf. Ex. 10:19).[7]

Note: Fixed phrases are set expressions where the wording is fixed, and the meaning is usually literal or transparent. They are often used in specific contexts or as conventionalized expressions. Whereas Idioms are multi-word expressions whose meanings are non-compositional, meaning they cannot be understood by interpreting the individual words literally. They often have figurative or cultural significance.

[1] Douglas Mangum, The Lexham Glossary of Theology (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2014).

[2] Douglas Mangum, The Lexham Glossary of Theology (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2014).

[3]Collins English Dictionary. (Glasgow: HarperCollins, 2006).

[4] Geerhardus Vos, The Eschatology of the Old Testament, ed. James T. Dennison Jr. (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2001), 38.

[5] Betty J. Talbert, “Homily Form in Hellenistic and Early Christianity,” in The Concise Lexham Bible Dictionary, ed. John D. Barry et al. (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2021).

[6] Horst Robert Balz and Gerhard Schneider, Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1990–), 402.

[7] K. Seybold, “חָפַךְ,” in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, ed. G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, trans. David E. Green (Grand Rapids, MI; Cambridge, U.K.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1978), 423–424.

MJ. Smith

QUESTION: Define “idiom”’ give examples in English, Biblical Hebrew, and Biblical Koine Greek

SOFTWARE: A smart search on idiom will find a number of entries in grammars and dictionaries along with the related Bible references.

ANSWER: Definition: An idiom is a multi-word expression whose meaning is figurative or non-compositional, meaning it cannot be understood by analyzing the individual words literally. Idioms are culturally or contextually bound and often convey meanings that are metaphorical or symbolic. English example: bucket list, kick the bucket

From Simon, Uriel. Jonah. JPS Bible Commentary. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1999.

“The God of Heaven” (1:9): Elohei ha-shamayim. This epithet is extremely rare in the older books of the Bible (Gen. 24:3, 7; Ps. 136:26), but common in Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, and the apocryphal books of Judith and Tobias.

“Great and small alike” (3:5): mi-gedolam ve-ʿad qetanam. In the older books, the idiom for the entire population always places the small before the great; the reverse order is found only here, in Esther, and in Chronicles, and is considered to be a “diachronic chiasm” (see Hurvitz).

“This was a great evil to” (i.e., “displeased”–4:1): va-yeraʿʾel. The older idiom is va-yeraʿ be-ʿeinei (lit., “it was evil in the eyes of”). The eyes disappear here, in Nehemiah (2:10 and 13:8), and in Mishnaic Hebrew.

“Compassionate and gracious” (4:2): ḥannun ve-raḥum. This, too, is probably a “diachronic chiasm”; in the first presentation of the Thirteen Divine Attributes (Exod. 34:6), the order is “gracious and compassionate.” Compassion comes first here and in Joel, Nehemiah, and Chronicles (both forms are used in Psalms).[1]

From Longman, Tremper, III, Peter Enns, and Mark Strauss, eds. The Baker Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2013.

The word “heart” also appears in several idioms.

Hardness of heart. A hard heart is obstinate or averse (Mark 3:5), while a tender heart is humble (2 Kings 22:19). In the book of Exodus the translations typically say that God or Pharaoh hardened Pharaoh’s/his heart. These passages in Exodus use not the Hebrew words for hardness but rather those for being heavy or for strengthening. The neutral sense of strengthening the heart takes on nuances in context for being bold or obstinate. Pharaoh was strengthened in his opposition to God, and this obstinacy fits the idiom of having a hard heart.

Uncircumcised/circumcised heart. An uncircumcised heart is a metaphor for an obstinate and rebellious heart, while a circumcised heart is linked to being humble and faithful (Lev. 26:41; Deut. 30:6; Jer. 4:4; Acts 7:51). Perhaps the metaphor is based on the role of circumcision in the covenant.

“A man after his [God’s] own heart” (1 Sam. 13:14). This description of David may mean either “according to his [God’s] choice” (cf. 2 Sam. 7:21), stressing God’s choice over the people’s choice, or it may mean “in accordance with his [God’s] desire” (1 Sam. 14:7; 1 Kings 15:3), referring to how David showed conformity with God’s agenda.

All the heart. The phrase “with all [one’s] heart” in some cases means “wholeheartedly” or “single-mindedly,” which emphasizes unity of purpose and focus. In other cases it seems to mean, more broadly, “with all of one’s thinking or perspective” and implies the work of adjusting our worldview away from common cultural assumptions and toward God’s teaching.

Say in one’s heart. This expression denotes talking to oneself (i.e., thinking) rather than out loud or indicates reflection or deliberation. There are several warnings not to lie to oneself—that is, not to deliberate, believe, and act on the stated false premise.

Take [a matter] to heart. To take something to heart is to take it very seriously or to give it high priority.[2]

From Tsumura, David. The First Book of Samuel. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2007.

Brachylogy is the omission of key words in “idiomatic” expressions. Before discussing brachylogy in 1–2 Samuel, however, we should pay attention to idioms in Hebrew language. Generally speaking, an idiom involves collocation of several words, like kick the bucket, and its meaning “is not related to the meaning of the individual words, but is sometimes (though not always) nearer to the meaning of a single word (thus kick the bucket equals die).” A. Gibson explains this fact differently:

“The features of ossification, fossilization, non-substitutivity of components and unpredictability of relations of idioms to their components’ prehistory or synchronic homonyms are properties of idioms which can be adduced.”

Sometimes an important element of an idiom is missing. Such an omission is called “brachylogy,” which is a type of “ellipsis.” One obvious example of brachylogy is 1 Sam. 22:8, where the expression made a covenant (bikrot; lit. “in cutting”) has only the verb *krt, the noun brt “a covenant” being omitted by brachylogy as in 1 Sam. 11:2; 20:16; also 1 K. 8:9 = 2 Chr. 5:10. Also, in 1 Sam. 14:42 the term decide (happîlû; lit. “cause to fall”) is without an object noun. Usually the verb (*npl) appears with the term gôrāl (“lot”) as in the phrase “cast the lot(s)” *npl (Hi.) + gôrāl. Here, there is a brachylogy, namely, an ellipsis of the noun “lots.” The phrase “to cause the lots to fall” became an idiom which means “to decide.” Hence, even after the ellipsis of “the lots,” the verb *npl (Hi.) keeps this idiomatic sense.

So far, the examples given involve brachylogy of the object (also 1 Sam. 2:5; 8:3; 12:6; 18:11; 20:42). However, a subject that is a part of an idiom may also be omitted by brachylogy. For example, in 1 Sam. 24:11 the verb I pitied (wattāḥos; 3 f.s.) is literally “ (my eye) looked upon with compassion” with a brachylogy of the f.s. subject, “my eye.” It is unnecessary to restore ‘yny before ‘lyk, since body terms are often omitted from idiomatic expressions. So, its omission is not due to accidental “loss” in the history of textual transmission but is an example of brachylogy. See also 1 Sam. 20:19; 23:8.

Thus, these unusual phenomena in both prose and poetry are important for the better understanding of Hebrew narrative, especially for 1–2 Samuel, whose “peculiar” grammatical forms and usages have been often explained as due to textual “corruption.” To note those stylistic and grammatical features and to clarify their functions are very important for interpreting narrative prose, which is primarily an “aural” text and subject to poetic analysis. Before treating the texts of 1–2 Samuel as “corrupt,” we ought to read the them according to their own style and grammar, as the examples noted in the preceding sections demonstrate.[3]

From Cribb, Bryan H., and Channing L. Crisler. The Bible Toolbox. B&H Academic, 2019.

Two key features of Mark’s idiom are (1) the expression immediately and (2) the motif of mystery.

Mark’s Gospel is the “hurry-up” Gospel. He uses the adverb immediately (εὐθύς) repeatedly to move along his narrative in rapid fashion. One explanation for the frequency of this expression is that Mark wants to rush the reader to the crucifixion scene, because it is at Golgotha (15:22) that Jesus’s identity as the Christ (1:1) and Son of God (1:1) is fully disclosed.

The motif of mystery is also a primary feature of Mark’s idiom. Mystery is Mark’s preferred way of describing the kingdom of God, which Jesus announces and reveals. The kingdom is mysterious in various ways for Mark. For example, Jesus teaches his disciples that he reveals the kingdom to some and conceals it from others. He explains to them, “The secret (μυστήριον) of the kingdom of God has been given to you, but to those outside, everything comes in parables so that they may indeed look and yet not perceive; they may indeed listen, and yet not understand; otherwise they might turn back and be forgiven” (4:11–12). Similar descriptions of the kingdom as a mystery are scattered throughout Mark, but he does not use the explicit term mystery. Instead, he makes this point by depicting the disciples and others as figures who struggle to discern the mysterious identity of Jesus.

When reading Mark, take note of Mark’s idiom. Observe how often Mark hurries readers along and where he slows them down. Trace how he develops his motif of mystery. There are of course other features in Mark’s idiom. In general, interpreters should pay attention to repeated or rare expressions. These are often exegetically significant.[4]

[1] Uriel Simon, Jonah, JPS Bible Commentary (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1999), xl.

[2] Tremper Longman III, Peter Enns, and Mark Strauss, eds., The Baker Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2013), 752–753.

[3] David Tsumura, The First Book of Samuel, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2007), 64–65.

[4] Bryan H. Cribb and Channing L. Crisler, The Bible Toolbox (B&H Academic, 2019), 356–357.

Continued in comment