TIP OF THE DAY 62: Commands

link to next post https://community.logos.com/forums/p/227088/1327038.aspx#1327038

Since the forum change has been delayed, I've started adding these posts to the previous tip list. See L/V 10 Tip of the Day Note that this list has been moved to the wiki (which itself is moved to the new forum software). 

QUESTION: What is VerbNet, the source of the verb list for commands and questions?

ANSWER: From Perplexity:

VerbNet is a large online database of English verbs that organizes them into groups based on their meanings and how they're used in sentences. Here's a simple explanation:

1. Purpose: VerbNet helps computers understand how verbs work in English sentences.

2. Organization: It groups verbs that have similar meanings and are used in similar ways. For example, verbs like "run," "walk," and "jog" might be in the same group because they're all about moving on foot.

3. Information provided: For each verb group, VerbNet gives:

• A list of verbs in that group
• The roles that different parts of a sentence play with those verbs (like who's doing the action, what's being affected, etc.)
• Examples of how the verbs can be used in sentences
• A description of what's happening in the action of the verb

4. Usage: Researchers and computer scientists use VerbNet to help create programs that can understand and process human language more accurately.

5. Size: It's quite comprehensive, covering thousands of English verbs.

6. Comparison: Think of it like a very detailed dictionary, but instead of just definitions, it provides a lot more information about how verbs are used in sentences.

In essence, VerbNet is a tool that helps bridge the gap between how humans understand language and how computers process it, focusing specifically on verbs and their roles in sentences.[1]

QUESTION: What is valency of a verb?

ANSWER: From Perplexity:

Verb valence (also called valency) refers to the number and type of arguments that a verb requires to form a grammatically complete clause. In other words, it's the capacity of a verb to take a specific number and type of noun phrases or other elements as its arguments.

Key points about verb valence:

1. It determines how many participants or arguments a verb needs to create a well-formed sentence.

2. Arguments can include subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, and other complements.

3. Verbs are often classified based on their valence:

• Avalent (valence of 0): No arguments (e.g., "It's raining.")
• Monovalent/Intransitive (valence of 1): One argument (e.g., "She sleeps.")
• Divalent/Transitive (valence of 2): Two arguments (e.g., "He ate an apple.")
• Trivalent/Ditransitive (valence of 3): Three arguments (e.g., "She gave him a book.")

4. Valence can sometimes change through various linguistic processes (like passivization).

5. It's related to, but not identical to, the concept of transitivity. Valence counts all arguments, including the subject, while transitivity typically only counts objects.

6. Understanding verb valence is important for grammatical analysis, language learning, and natural language processing tasks.[2]

QUESTION: How does valence relate to the transitive/intransitive distinction?

ANSWER: From Perplexity:

Valence and transitivity are related concepts that describe how verbs interact with their arguments, but they focus on slightly different aspects:

Valence

Valence refers to the number of arguments a verb can take. The main valence types are:

1. Avalent (zero-valent): No arguments (e.g. "It's raining")
2. Monovalent (intransitive): One argument (e.g. "He sleeps")
3. Divalent (transitive): Two arguments (e.g. "He kicks the ball")
4. Trivalent (ditransitive): Three arguments (e.g. "He gave her a book")

Some linguists also recognize quadrivalent verbs with four arguments, though these are rare.

Transitivity

Transitivity focuses specifically on whether a verb takes a direct object:

• Intransitive verbs do not take a direct object (e.g. "He sleeps")
• Transitive verbs take a direct object (e.g. "He kicks the ball")
• Ditransitive verbs take both a direct and indirect object (e.g. "He gave her a book")

Relationship

The key relationship is:

• Intransitive verbs are typically monovalent (valence of 1)
• Transitive verbs are typically divalent (valence of 2)
• Ditransitive verbs are typically trivalent (valence of 3)

However, valence considers all arguments including the subject, while transitivity focuses only on objects. So a transitive verb with valence 2 has one subject and one object.

Additionally, some verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively, changing their valence[7]. For example:

• "He sang" (intransitive, valence 1)
• "He sang the anthem" (transitive, valence 2)

In summary, while closely related, valence provides a more comprehensive view of a verb's argument structure, while transitivity specifically describes the presence or absence of direct objects. Understanding both concepts gives a fuller picture of how verbs operate within sentences.[3]

QUESTION: What is the relationship between valence and case frames?

ANSWER: From Perplexity:

There is a close relationship between verb valence and case frames:

1. Definition and scope:

• Verb valence refers to the number and type of arguments controlled by a predicate (typically a verb).
• Case frames specify a verb's semantic valency, detailing the semantic roles and syntactic realization of a verb's arguments.

2. Semantic roles:

• Both valence and case frames are concerned with the semantic roles associated with a verb.
• Case frames explicitly define these roles (e.g., Agent, Theme, Source), while valence determines how many and what types of roles are required.

3. Syntactic realization:

• Valence includes information about how arguments are syntactically realized (e.g., as subject, object, or oblique).
• Case frames also specify the syntactic patterns associated with semantic roles.

4. Theoretical foundations:

• Case frames were proposed by Charles Fillmore as part of Case Grammar, which later evolved into Frame Semantics.
• Valence theory draws on similar principles but focuses more on the number and obligatoriness of arguments.

5. Representation in lexical resources:

• VerbNet, a lexical resource, incorporates both valence and case frame information:
• It organizes verbs into classes based on shared syntactic and semantic properties.
• For each verb class, it provides thematic roles (similar to case frames) /*8o9+-and syntactic patterns (reflecting valence).

6. Relationship to event structure:

• Both valence and case frames contribute to understanding the overall event structure of a verb.
• They help in representing how participants interact and change throughout an event.

7. Application in NLP (Natural Language Processing):

• Information from both valence and case frames is used to create detailed semantic representations of verbs.
• These representations are useful for various NLP tasks, particularly those involving event understanding and inference.

In essence, verb valence and case frames are complementary concepts that together provide a comprehensive view of a verb's syntactic and semantic properties. While valence focuses on the number and type of arguments, case frames provide more detailed semantic role information within that structure. Both are crucial for understanding verb behavior and creating rich semantic representations for natural language processing tasks.[4]

QUESTION: How does Logos analyze this verse: Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect. ^[5]?

ANSWER: From the context menu on “Be perfect:”

• Speaker: Jesus (Reported Speech)
• Addressee: Crowd at the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Reported Speech)
• Informative: Assertive (Speech Acts) (a) All Informative speech acts involve the exchange of information as the principle purpose of the communicative act (b) An assertive speech act is one where a speaker makes an assertion or a statement, gives a description. The speaker thus provides (asserts) information to the hearer or audience.
• Obligative: Directive (Speech Acts) (a) All Obligative speech acts impose an obligation on either the hearer or the speaker themself. (b) A directive speech act is one where the speaker attempts to get the hearer to do something.^[7]
• Declarative Sentence (Sentence Type) A declarative sentence is usually seen as an assertion of fact. And it usually uses the indicative mood and the most prototypical word order. The subjunctive mood is also used for declarative sentences. The purpose of declarative sentences is usually to express statements of fact.
• Command: Type:Command (Commands in the Bible) A speaker gives an authoritative direction or instruction to do something.^[9]
• Command: Verb: Seems (Commands in the Bible) 109: Seem To have or give the impression of having a certain outward aspect.^[10]
• Verb morphology: verb, future, middle, indicative, second person, plural (a) mood — The feature of the Greek or Latin verb that denotes the nature of the verbal idea with regard to reality. That is, mood indicates whether the action of the verb is considered actual or only potential. The moods in Greek are the imperative, indicative, optative and subjunctive. Latin has only the imperative, indicative and subjunctive. (b) indicative — The mood in which the action of the verb or the state of being it describes is presented by the writer as real. It is the mood of assertion, where the writer portrays something as actual (as opposed to possible or contingent on intention). Depending on context, the writer may or may not believe the action is real, but is presenting it as real.^[11]
• Verb sense sense:to be (quality) (Context Menu/Bible Sense Lexicon)
• Verb valency and transitivity: The verb “be” has a valence of 1 or 2 i.e. a subject and an optional complement; “be” is a copular (linking) verb rather than being transitive or intransitive.
• Grammar: subject: you; predicate adjective: perfect (from Wu, Andi, and Randall Tan. Cascadia Syntax Graphs of the New Testament: SBL Edition. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2010. OR clause search)
• Semantics: theme:disciples Theme — Something that is moved from one place to another or that is located in a place; for example, “David threw the spear (Theme).”^[12]
• Summary Commentary (from Factbook on passage): Ver. 48. Jesus Christ here sums up his instructions by ordering us to be perfect as our heavenly Father is perfect; i.e. to imitate, as far as our exertions, assisted by divine grace, can reach, the divine perfection.^[13]

From Perplexity on the verb “be”:

The verb "be" is a fundamental and unique verb in English, and its valence characteristics are somewhat complex. Let's break this down:

1. Valence of "be":

The verb "be" is typically considered to have a valence of one or two, depending on its usage in a sentence. This means it can take one or two arguments (subject and complement).

2. Transitivity:

Strictly speaking, "be" is not classified as either transitive or intransitive in the traditional sense. Instead, it's often categorized as a copular verb or linking verb.

3. Copular verb function:

As a copular verb, "be" connects the subject of a sentence to a subject complement. This complement can be:

• A noun: "She is a doctor."
• An adjective: "The weather is nice."
• A prepositional phrase: "The book is on the table."

4. Intransitive-like usage:

In some contexts, "be" can function similarly to an intransitive verb:

• Existential sentences: "There are many stars in the sky."
• Statements of existence or presence: "I think, therefore I am."

5. Special characteristics:

Unlike most verbs, "be" doesn't describe an action. It expresses a state of being, existence, or identity, which is why its classification is unique.

In conclusion, while "be" shares some characteristics with intransitive verbs in certain contexts, it's more accurately described as a copular verb with a valence of one or two, depending on its usage. Its unique nature in English grammar makes it difficult to classify using traditional transitive/intransitive categories.

[1] https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35493615/ and https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2022.821697/full and https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9048683/ and https://verbs.colorado.edu/verbnet/ and https://verbs.colorado.edu/verb-index/Documentation.php and https://biblehub.com/deuteronomy/6-1.htm and https://www.dbu.edu/mitchell/ancient-christian-resources/patristicinterpintro.html and https://oxfordre.com/religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-342?d=%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199340378-e-342&p=emailAAKtXBZellarU

[2] https://gaelicgrammar.org/~gaelic/mediawiki/index.php/Valence_(definition) and https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/valence and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valency_(linguistics) and https://glossary.sil.org/term/valency and https://ufal.mff.cuni.cz/pdt2.0/doc/manuals/en/t-layer/html/ch06s02s03.html and https://academicmarker.com/grammar-practice/verb-functions/verb-transitivity/what-is-a-verb-argument-transitivity-vs-valency/ and https://ithkuil.net/05_verbs_1.html and https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/valency

[3] https://academicmarker.com/grammar-practice/verb-functions/verb-transitivity/what-is-a-verb-argument-transitivity-vs-valency/ and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valency_(linguistics) and https://www.thinkinitalian.com/transitive-intransitive-verbs-italian and https://academicmarker.com/grammar-practice/verb-functions/verb-transitivity/how-are-intransitive-and-transitive-verbs-different/ and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intransitive_verb and https://plainscree.algonquianlanguages.ca/grammar/words/verbs/transitivity/ and https://www.grammarly.com/blog/parts-of-speech/transitive-and-intransitive-verbs/ and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=va-kZjjzBnM

[4] https://ufal.mff.cuni.cz/pdt2.0/doc/manuals/en/t-layer/html/ch06s02s03.html and https://ithkuil.net/05_verbs_1.html and http://sites.la.utexas.edu/hcb/files/2017/12/Boas-Dux-2017-draft-version.pdf and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valency_(linguistics) and https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9048683/ and https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2022.821697/full and https://verbs.colorado.edu/verbnet/ and https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35493615/

^[5] The Holy Bible: New Revised Standard Version (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1989), Mt 5:48.

James Parks, Speech Acts Dataset Documentation (Bellingham, WA: Faithlife, 2016).

^[7] James Parks, Speech Acts Dataset Documentation (Bellingham, WA: Faithlife, 2016).

James Parks, Sentence Types Dataset Documentation (Bellingham, WA: Faithlife, 2016).

^[9] Jeremy Thompson, Commands in the Bible Dataset Documentation (Bellingham, WA: Faithlife, 2017).

^[10] Jeremy Thompson, Commands in the Bible Dataset Documentation (Bellingham, WA: Faithlife, 2017).

^[11] Michael S. Heiser and Vincent M. Setterholm, Glossary of Morpho-Syntactic Database Terminology (Lexham Press, 2013; 2013).

^[12] Jeremy Thompson, The Lexham Glossary of Semantic Roles (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2014).

^[13] George Leo Haydock, Haydock’s Catholic Bible Commentary (New York: Edward Dunigan and Brother, 1859), Mt 5:48.