Studies on Isaiah (12 vols.)

This monograph explores the structure and rhetoric of the book of Isaiah. Its thesis is twofold. First, the book of Isaiah best manifests its structural unity, thematic coherence, and rhetorical emphasis when read as an exemplar of prophetic covenant disputation. Second, the principal arrangement of the book comprises seven asymmetrical concentric sections, each made up of complex (triadic and quadratic) framing patterns. They are: an exordium (1:1, 2–5), two threats of judgment (2:6–21; 3:1–4:1), two programs for the punishment and restoration of Zion and the nations (4:2–11:16; 13:1–39:8), an exoneration of Yahweh (40:1–54:17), and an appeal for covenant reconciliation (55:1–66:24).

This work takes seriously the compositional nature of Isaiah 24–27 and moves beyond the schema established by Bernard Duhm who defined these chapters as a composite of unrelated pericopae. This new approach has enabled new light to be brought to such perennial problems as the identity of the city (or cities), the date of the composition, the structure of the four chapters, the perspective of the composition and the nature of the resurrection alluded to in 26:19. This study concludes that Isaiah 24–27 was written during the exile, a time significantly earlier than is commonly held by critical scholars. The composition exhibits the marks of a coherent and integrated work. It is not apocalyptic in the sense of envisioning the termination of the present age, nor is there any notion of an individual resurrection such as one finds in the book of Daniel.

By a poetic analysis of Isaiah 34–35 as a single poem, the reading explores in depth its imagery, themes and structure. Attention to detail is combined with wide-ranging discussions of reading and interpretation, which revolve around the contrasting, and strangely interrelated, scenes of destruction (nightmare) and restoration (dream) found in the two parts of the poem. The poem emerges as an integral part of Isaiah, which is treated as a single work. The consistency is revealed in parallel terms, images and structure. Implications of the analysis and mode of reading for the whole of Isaiah are commented on throughout.

While most treatments of biblical metaphor examine individual metaphors in isolation, Sarah J. Dille presents a model for interpretation based on their interaction with one another. Using Lakoff and Johnson’s category of “metaphoric coherence,” she argues that when non-consistent or contradictory metaphors appear together in a literary unit, the areas of overlap (coherence) are highlighted in each.

Using the images of father and mother in Deutero-Isaiah as a starting point, she explores how these images interact with others: for example, the divine warrior, the redeeming kinsman, the artisan of clay, or the husband. The juxtaposition of diverse metaphors (common in Hebrew prophetic literature) highlights common “entailments,” enabling the reader to see aspects of the image which would be overlooked or invisible if read in isolation. Dille argues that any metaphor for God can only be understood if it is read or heard in interaction with others within a particular cultural context.

This study attempts to examine the role of tradition in the teaching of Isaiah with a view to discerning the basis of the ethics presupposed by the prophet. The view that Isaiah's ethical pronouncements were dependent upon the legal, covenantal and wisdom traditions of Israel is discussed, and the possibility of a direct dependence on the oracles of his contemporary, Amos, is examined. Davies shows that the whole question of the influence of tradition on the thought of Isaiah is fraught with problems.

Rhetoric ad Social Justice in Isaiah applies a literary methodology to the book of Isaiah in order critically to explore the nature and sources of the social justice encoded in the world created by the text. After a close reading of Isaiah 1:16–17, Gray establishes grounds for a trajectory to Isaiah 58, preparatory to examining if it offers a deepening of the concept of social justice in the Isaianic corpus.

Gray raises the issue of divine reliability to assess the impact on the theme of social justice of the rhetoric of universal punishment by the divine/prophetic voice. He evaluates the ways the stark Isaianic dichotomy between reliance on God and anything of human origin is affected by trust in God being destabilized: if trust in God is demonstrated to be difficult on account of legitimate doubts about divine justice, then the way is opened for retaining an active human role in the search for justice. Gray demonstrates the ways that social justice attains primacy in Isaiah, the ways that humanity if given a role in pursuing social justice, and the ways that Isaiah 58 impinges upon the idea of social justice within the book as a whole.

Insights gained from the study of metaphorical language in other fields, particularly New Testament parable research, are here applied to the tree metaphors in Isaiah 1–39. The focus of investigation is the content of the metaphors, the intentions underlying their use, and the consequences of that use.

The author suggests that (1) the informative function of the tree metaphors is to provide theological interpretations of the political situation; (2) the performative function of the metaphors is to engage the audience in such a way that they adopt the metaphors' interpretation of reality as their own; (3) the use of metaphorical language encourages continual reinterpretation of the original proclamation.

The tree in the Garden, the felling of trees, new growth of felled trees and the forest fire, are among the images Isaiah uses to make his political statements. He shows himself to be an extremely competent rhetorician in using these images to instill an active response in his audience. The modes in which the metaphors can be reinterpreted and reapplied in new contexts are perceived as significant not only for the composition of Isaiah, but for that of subsequent religious literature.

In his famous vision of the enthroned and exalted Lord, Isaiah is told to harden the hearts of his people, “lest they repent” (Isaiah 6:9–10). According to Mark's Gospel, which cites this text, Jesus speaks in parables for the same reason. Interpreters of all generations have, not unnaturally, found the text difficult and disturbing. This study is concerned with the fascinating variety of early Jewish and Christian interpretations and modifications that have attempted to cope with the difficulty. At different stages in Judaism and Christianity the Isaianic vision of God is more clearly perceived than at other times. Isaiah 6:9–10 is itself indeed shocking and disturbing, but this is not inappropriate in the context of the prophetic message.

The surge of the Pentecostal movement in this century has brought new relevance to the study of the Spirit of God in the Old Testament. Surprisingly, however, this theme has been largely neglected by Pentecostal scholars. Ma seeks to fill this gap by providing an in-depth study of the Spirit of God in the Isaianic traditions. He argues that the Old Testament concept of the Spirit of God has more than one root, and that the development of the various spirit traditions can be fruitfully traced. The study utilizes a synchronic approach together with historical analyses in order to elucidate the message of the book of Isaiah. The author concludes that the concept of the Spirit of God retains a strong eschatological significance throughout the book.

This collection of essays arises from the lively discussions in the Formation of the Book of Isaiah Seminar of the Society of Biblical Literature. The essays exhibit the diversity that has always been present in the Seminar. Each contributor has a unique perspective and thus extends the frontiers of research on the book of Isaiah. Yet, taken as a whole, the essays fall into two broad groups, being either objective in their approach to the text—embracing historical-critical method or a synchronic approach in which text rather than reader is the focus—or postmodern, in the sense that meaning is in no small degree located in what the reader does. In addition to the editors, the contributors are Mark Biddle, David Carr, Edgar Conrad, Chris Franke, Kathryn Pfisterer Darr, Rolf Rendtorff, Gerald Sheppard, Benjamin Sommer, Gary Stansell, and Roy Wells.

Contributions to this volume include:

• “The Book of Isaiah: A Complex Unity,” Rolf Rendtorff
• “The Book of Isaiah as Prophetic Torah,” Marvin A. Sweeney
• “Isaiah 28–33: Blest Be the Tie that Binds (Isaiah Together),” Gary Stansell
• “Reversals of Fortune in the Ancient Near East: A Study of the Babylon Oracles in the Book of Isaiah,” Chris A. Franke
• “Lady Zion’s Alter Egos: Isaiah 47:1–15 and 57:6–13 as Structural Counterparts,” Mark E. Biddle
• “Isaiah as an Exponent of Torah: Isaiah 56:1–8,” Roy D. Wells, Jr.
• “Allusions and Illusions: The Unity of the Book of Isaiah in Light of Deutero-Isaiah’s Use of Prophetic Tradition,” Benjamin D. Sommer
• “Reading Isaiah from Beginning (Isaiah 1) to End (Isaiah 65–66): Multiple Modern Possibilities,” David M. Carr
• “No Strength to Deliver: A Contextual Analysis of Hezekiah’s Proverb in Isaiah 37:3b,” Katheryn Pfisterer Darr
• “The ‘Scope’ of Isaiah as a Book of Jewish and Christian Scriptures,” Gerald T. Sheppard
• “Figurative Speech and the Reading of Isaiah 1 as Scripture,” Roy F. Melugin
• “Prophet, Redactor and Audience: Reforming the Notion of Isaiah’s Formation,” Edgar W. Conrad

In several places in Isaiah 56–66 a group of Israelites is accused of engaging in various forms of aberrant religious practice: the sacrifice of children, the eating of swine, participation in fertility rites, the practice of necromancy, offering sacrifice to deities known as Gad and Meni, and a host of other things. Who are these people? Certainly not the Zadokite priesthood, as Paul Hanson claimed in his The Dawn of Apocalyptic. More likely argues Schramm, they are simply traditional syncretistic Yahwists.

These essays are written in honor of John D.W. Watts, formerly Professor of Old Testament at Southern Baptist Seminary, Louisville, Kentucky and Old Testament editor of the Word Biblical Commentary, well known for his scholarly contributions on the prophetic books. Accordingly, the essays here address the literary, redactional and canonical questions posed by the Hebrew Bible's prophetic literature. The prophetic books have defied easy classification according to genre or facile explanation of their historical development. With a special focus on the books of Isaiah and of the Twelve Prophets, the nature and formation of prophecy as literature is probed from a variety of methodological standpoints, including textual criticism, synchronic literary analysis, tradition history and redaction criticism.