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wine and strong drink. Alcoholic beverages of various types.

I. Terminology. The usual Hebrew word for “wine,” the fermented juice of the grape, is yayin H3516 (Gen. 9:21 et al.); the Greek equivalent is oinos G3885 (Lk. 1:15 et al.). In certain contexts (e.g., the poetic statement in Isa. 16:10, “no one treads out wine at the presses”), the term can be used more generally without specific reference to the stage of fermentation, and proponents of total abstinence argue that both yayin and oinos may refer to either fermented or unfermented grape juice (see esp. S. Bacchiocchi, Wine in the Bibe: A Biblical Study on the Use of Alcoholic Beverages [1989]). Several words, however, were available to the biblical writers when referring to the juice extracted from grapes (see below), and if the distinction between fermented and unfermented juice had been (morally) important to the Israelites, it is difficult to understand why different terms or phrases were not used with some consistency to discriminate between the two stages (as is almost always done in English), or why the distinction between allowing the one and forbidding the other is never made explicit (contrast the explicit differentiation between leavened and unleavened bread in Exod. 12:15 et al.).

Another Hebrew word, tîrôš H9408, is often translated “new wine” (Gen. 27:28 et al., also rendered with oinos by the lxx) and possibly refers to must, that is, grape juice before and during fermentation; it is clear, however, that the tîrôš could be intoxicating (Hos. 4:11; cf. similarly Acts 2:13, which uses the Greek word for “new wine,” gleukos G1183). In addition, there are three poetic terms: (a) ʿāsîs H6747, which seems to be a near synonym of tîrôš (Amos 9:13 et al.; it too could be intoxicating, Isa. 49:26); (b) sōbeʾ H6011 (Isa. 1:22 et al., though some think this term refers to beer made from grain; see HALOT, 2:738); and (c) ḥemer H2815, which apparently refers to wine while it is still fermenting (only Deut. 32:14 [NIV, “foaming”]; cf. ḥămar H10271, the normal Aram. term for “wine,” Ezra 6:9 et al.).

Note should also be made of the expression kol-mišrat ʿănābîm, “all juice of grapes,” one of the items forbidden to Nazirites (Num. 6:3). The word mišrâ H5489 occurs nowhere else and thus its precise meaning is uncertain; the phrase may refer in general to any grape extract (cf. NJPS, “anything in which grapes have been steeped”). Assuming that the reference is to unfermented grape juice, as most versions seem to take it, the question arises why this phrase was not used elsewhere. In particular, if the positive statements about yayin (see below, section III) have in view grape juice, why would the writers use a supposedly ambiguous term when mišrat ʿănābîm or a similar phrase was available?

The Hebrew word translated “strong drink” by the KJV and other versions (NIV, “fermented drink” or “beer”) is šēkār H8911 (Lev. 10:9 et al., derived from the verb šākar H8910, “to be/become drunk,” Gen. 9:21 et al.; Gk. sikera G4975, used in the lxx and Lk. 1:15, is a borrowing of the Aram. cognate šikrāʾ). This word is used to denote any intoxicating drink made from any fruit or grain, and at least in the early period included wine (cf. Num. 28:7 with 28:14; in Isa. 5:11 it occurs in parallel with yayin referring to intoxicating beverages in general). Usually, however, the use of the term is restricted to intoxicants other than wine from grapes. It probably refers to beer made from barley. Both šēkār and yayin were forbidden to Nazirites (Num. 6:3: cf. Jdg. 13:4, 7, 14; Lk. 1:15) and also to priests when they entered the Tent of Meeting (Lev. 10:9). The book of Proverbs advises, “Wine is a mocker and beer a brawler; / whoever is led astray by them is not wise” (Prov. 20:1; cf. 31:4, 6). When Eli accuses Hannah of being intoxicated she responds, “I have not been drinking wine or beer” (1 Sam. 1:15).

II. Mixed wine. In the OT period, there is some evidence that diluting wine with water was considered undesirable (Isa. 1:22, where the mixture is symbolical of spiritual adulteration). In the Greek and Roman periods wine was often mixed with water, and some considered this mixture to be healthier and more enjoyable: “it is harmful to drink wine alone, or, again, to drink water alone, while wine mixed with water is sweet and delicious and enhances one’s enjoyment” (2 Macc. 15:39; it should be recalled that water could be unsafe to drink). Red wine was generally considered to be better and stronger than white wine (cf. Prov. 23:31). The wines of Lebanon (Hos. 14:7) and of Helbon (Ezek. 27:18) may have been white wines. The vineyards of Eshcol (prob. near Hebron) were famous for their large clusters of grapes (Num. 13:23). Samaria was the center of viticulture (Jer. 31:5; Mic. 1:6), but the Ephraimites had the reputation for being heavy wine drinkers (Isa. 28:1).

The Song of Solomon speaks of “spiced [reqaḥ H8380] wine” (Cant. 8:2). This phrase represented a variety of wines referred to as mixed or mingled wine. They were prepared with different kinds of herbs after the manner of the non-Israelite peoples of the ANE and were much more intoxicating than the regular wine. This fact made it popular at banquets and festive occasions (Prov. 9:2, 5; Isa. 5:22; Heb. verb māsak H5007, “to mix”). The biblical injunctions against its misuse are clear (Prov. 23:29–30; Heb. noun mimsāk H4932). When wine was mixed with myrrh, it was used as a drug for its anaesthetic and stupefying effects. It was this that was offered to Jesus at the time of his crucifixion (Matt. 27:34; Mk. 15:23).

The rabbinical writers refer to several mixtures of wine that were known in Palestine and throughout the ANE. There was a mixture made of old wine with very clear water and balsam which was used especially after bathing. Use was also made of a raisin wine and a wine mixed with a sauce of oil and garum. A popular mixed wine was one mixed with honey and pepper, and recommended by the rabbis was a special emetic wine taken before a meal. There were many other mixtures of wine. Good vinegar was made by mixing barley in the wine.

III. Biblical attitudes to the use of wine. The attitude reflected throughout the Bible to the use of wine as a beverage is accurately expressed by Jesus the Son of Sirach, “Wine drunk at the proper time and in moderation / is rejoicing of heart and gladness of soul. / Wine drunk to excess leads to bitterness of spirit, / to quarrels and stumbling” (Sir. 31:28–29). Its use was universal except in the case of the priest when ministering in the sanctuary, the Nazirites, and the Recabites, in which instances its use was prohibited. There is also, however, a constant awareness of the danger of incontinence in the use of wine, and this is denounced as sinful (Prov. 20:1; 23:29–35; Isa. 5:11, 22; 28:7–8; Hos. 4:11). Apparently the principle to be followed in the use of wine is that of moderation, consonant with Paul’s rule of conduct as formulated in 1 Cor. 8:8–13 and Rom. 14:13–21.

Wine receives special commendation in the Bible. There is reference to the “wine that gladdens the heart of man” (Ps. 104:15; cf. Jdg. 9:13; Eccl. 10:19). Used metaphorically wine represents the essence of goodness. The drinking of wine was sometimes accompanied by singing (Isa. 24:9). The desirable wife is compared to “a fruitful vine within your house” (Ps. 128:3). The blessing of wine is illustrated by the figure in which Israel is compared to a vine God brought from Egypt and planted in Canaan, where “it took root and filled the land,” sending its boughs as far W as the Mediterranean and as far E as the Euphrates (Ps. 80:8–11).

Prosperity was sometimes symbolized by an abundance of wine, as when Jacob blessed Judah saying that “he will wash his garments in wine / his robes in the blood of grapes” (Gen. 49:11). A time of peace and affluence is described as a situation in which every person dwells “under his vine and under his fig tree” (1 Ki. 4:25). Isaiah uses wine as a symbol of spiritual blessing (Isa. 55:1–2), and it is extolled in such passages as Eccl. 10:19. It appears that a temperate use of wine is not reprehensible (Zech. 10:7). References to wine in the Bible make it clear that its use was a common affair and a part of the regular diet (Jdg. 19:19; 1 Sam. 16:20; 2 Chr. 11:11).

On the other hand, there are repeated warnings in the Scriptures against the intemperate use of wine. See drunkenness. Isaiah warns “those who rise early in the morning / to run after their drinks, / who stay up late at night / till they are inflamed with wine” (Isa. 5:11; cf. v. 22). He condemns the priests and the prophets who “stagger from beer and are befuddled with wine” (28:7) and the shepherds who “lack understanding” because they say, “Come … let me get wine! / Let us drink our fill of beer” (56:11–12). Some of the strongest warnings against intemperance are in the book of Proverbs: “Wine is a mocker and beer a brawler” (Prov. 20:1); “whoever loves wine and oil will never be rich” (21:17; cf. 23:20–21); “Do not gaze at wine when it is red, / when it sparkles in the cup, / when it goes down smoothly” (23:31). This is followed by a description of the hallucinations that follow immoderate drinking (23:32–34). Micah chides the people of his time for preferring a preacher who claims, “I will prophesy for you plenty of wine and beer” (Mic. 2:11). Habakkuk says that wine is treacherous and suggests that its intemperate use is characteristic of a person who has other character weaknesses (Hab. 2:5). The real undesirable possibilities in the abuse of wine led to the prohibitions against its use by Nazirites and also by priests when performing their duties (Lev. 10:9; Num. 6:3; Ezek. 44:21).

A winepress at Masada.

There is no direct or absolute prohibition of the use of wine in the NT. The moderate and appropriate use of wine is recommended to Timothy by Paul, “Stop drinking only water, and use a little wine because of your stomach and your frequent illnesses” (1 Tim. 5:23). The intemperate use of wine is condemned in the NT just as it is in the OT. The Christian should “not get drunk on wine, which leads to debauchery” (Eph. 5:18). Christians should avoid living like non-Christians who are characterized as practicing drunkenness among their other vices (1 Pet. 4:3). Leaders in the church are exhorted to practice temperance (1 Tim. 3:3, 8). On one occasion Paul suggests total abstinence if the use of wine (or meat) is a stumbling block to another (Rom. 14:21; cf. 1 Cor. 8:13).

The view that total abstinence is required by Scripture is difficult to reconcile with the fact that the biblical warnings focus on the excessive use (or misuse) of wine. For example, Prov. 23:20 (referring obviously to fermented juice) puts wine in the same category as meat, “Do not join those who drink too much wine / or gorge themselves on meat” (cf. Rom. 14:21). Priests were forbidden to drink wine or strong drink specifically when ministering in the sanctuary (Lev. 10:9), clearly implying that alcoholic drinks were used on other occasions. Similarly, the requirement that deacons should not indulge in or be attached to “much wine” (oinō pollō, 1 Tim. 3:8) makes little sense if in fact Christians are not allowed to drink wine at all.

IV. Viticulture in Palestine. Viticulture and the production of wine was important in the ANE and is described in the Bible (see vine, vineyard). There are many references to the process of making wine in the Bible (Gen. 40:11; Deut. 18:4; Josh. 9:4; 1 Chr. 27:27; Ezek. 17:5–10). The vineyards were carefully cultivated and protected against vandalism by watchmen located in observation towers. No other plants were permitted to grow between the vines. An owner of a vineyard was exempt from military service at the time of the grape harvest in September, which was the season apparently for great festivity (Jer. 25:30; 48:33). The vintage is referred to in connection with the Feast of Booths (Deut. 16:13). Travelers were permitted to help themselves to the new wine and the poor could take what grapes remained on the ground, as they could with the harvest of all the crops. In the sabbatical year the vineyards, as in the case of all farmlands, were to lie fallow.

The grapes were brought from the vineyards in baskets and were usually spread out for a few days in the sun, the effect of which was to increase their sugar content. The grapes were then placed in wine vats and trodden with bare feet. It seems to have been usual for several people to tread out the grapes together, which is the point of Isaiah’s statement about the Messiah treading the winepress alone (Isa. 63:3). The usual wine vat consisted of three sections, two rectangular or circular rock-hewn pits at different levels connected with a channel. The upper pit was the larger one and here the grapes were trodden, the juice accumulating in the lower vat. The upper vat was usually twice the size in area as the lower, but only about half as deep. The wine vats varied in size. Even after the appearance of mechanical winepresses, the wine from trodden grapes was preferred and continued to be produced.

After the grapes were trodden, the husks that remained were pressed by means of a wooden plank, one end of which was secured to a socket in the side of the vat and the other end weighted with stones. Numbers of winepresses from Bible times have been discovered in the Holy Land and they vary in size and the number of vats. A winepress might have as many as four vats. The additional vats would allow for the settling of the must in the intermediate levels before the wine entered the final one. Usually the new wine was left in the vat to undergo the first fermentation, which took from four to seven days. It was then drawn or skimmed off (Hag. 2:16). If the vat had a spout, the wine was run off into jars or wineskins to complete the process of fermentation (Matt. 9:17). The whole period of fermentation would last from two to four months, at which time the wine would be ready for use. It would then be placed in smaller jars and skins. At this time the wine was strained through an earthenware, metal, or linen strainer to eliminate such things as grit and insects. Isaiah refers to this straining process when he mentions “wine on the lees well refined” (Isa. 25:6 KJV [Heb., šĕmārîm mĕzuqqāqîm; NRSV, “well-aged wines strained clear”]; cf. Matt. 23:24).

To aid in further maturing the wine and to guard against undesirable thickening on the lees, it was periodically poured from one vessel to another. Jeremiah has an allusion to this practice, “Moab has been at rest from youth, / like wine left on its dregs, / not poured from one jar to another—/ she has not gone into exile. / So she tastes as she did, / and her aroma is unchanged” (Jer. 48:11; cf. Zeph. 1:12). When the wine was refined and ready to be stored for long periods of time, it was poured in jars lined with pitch that were sealed and placed in the “wine cellars” (1 Chr. 27:27 NRSV). There apparently were no attempts made to preserve wine in an unfermented state. The Mishnah, for example, does not refer to any such preservation. Some scholars are of the opinion that preserving unfermented grape juice was virtually impossible in ancient times in Palestine (however, see the contrary arguments by Bacchiocchi, Wine in the Bible, ch. 4).

V. Uses of wine in the biblical world. Wine was universally used in the ANE in libation offerings to the gods of paganism. The Hebrews were constantly warned against becoming involved in these sacrifices to foreign gods (Deut. 32:37–38; Isa. 57:6; 65:11; Jer. 7:18; 19:13). The “drink offerings” which sometimes were a part of the Levitical sacrifices were of wine (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 23:13; Num. 15:7, 10; 28:14). Worshipers customarily brought wine among other requirements when they went to offer sacrifice (1 Sam. 1:24; 10:3, 8). A supply of wine was kept in the temple for sacrificial purposes (1 Chr. 9:29).

Besides its customary use, wine was important in various special occasions and for particular reasons. It was used for medicinal purposes, for example, to revive the faint (2 Sam. 16:2), and as a sedative “to those who are in anguish” (Prov. 31:6). It was the custom in Talmudic times to give ten cups of wine to mourners (b. Ketubbot 8b; later this quantity of wine was reduced). Paul’s prescription of “a little wine” for various ailments (1 Tim. 5:23) was widely practiced. The rabbis used a saying, “At the head of all medicine am I, Wine; only where there is no wine are drugs required” (b. Baba Batra 58b). It was used with oil in the dressing of wounds of the man who had fallen among robbers (Lk. 10:34).

Wine was also used at special occasions such as banquets. At the great banquet given by King Ahasuerus (Xerxes, Esth. 1:3, 7–8), the wine given to each guest was, according to Jewish tradition, from the king’s home province and of the vintage of the year of his birth. The Hebrew word for “feast” or “banquet” is mišteh H5492, literally, “a drinking” (from the verb šātâ H9272, “to drink”). Wine also figures prominently as a desirable gift for important people, as when David received “skins of wine” from Abigail (1 Sam. 25:18) and Ziba (2 Sam. 16:1). Because of its importance in every area of the life of Palestine, it was inevitable that wine should become an important commodity in business and commerce. When Solomon built the temple in Jerusalem, he paid Hiram king of Tyre, among other things, 20,000 baths (1 bath equaled almost 6 gallons) for his help.

The use of wine has been a part of religious ceremonies and festive occasions in the Jewish home and in the synagogue throughout Hebrew history. Viticulture soon became the most important agricultural activity in Palestine in the colonies established by Zionism. The cellars of the Rothchilds at Rishon le-Ziyyon controlled almost the entire produce of the Zionist colonies and was distributed through the Carmel Wine Company in all parts of Europe, Russia, and the United States. The 1904 vintage in the Rothchild cellars was more than 7,000,000 bottles, of which 200,000 went to Warsaw. The income of this trade in wine was of primary importance for the early economy of the Jewish homeland. During the period of prohibition in the United States (1920–33) the production and sale of wine for sacramental purposes was permitted by the federal government. Orthodox rabbis insisted upon the use of wine, although Conservative and Reform rabbis in the country held, on the basis of Talmudic law, that for Jewish ritual grape juice could be used instead of wine.

(See further M. Jastrow, Jr., in JAOS 33 [1913]: 180–92; H. F. Lutz, Viticulture and Brewing in the Ancient Orient [1922]; A. C. Haddad, Palestine Speaks [1936], 60–67; C. T. Seltman, Wine in the Ancient World [1957]; E. Ferguson in Restoration Quarterly 13 [1970]: 141–53; K. L. Gentry, Jr., The Christian and Alcoholic Beverages: A Biblical Perspective [1986]; P. E. McGovern et al., eds., The Origins and Ancient History of Wine [1996]; C. E. Walsh, The Fruit of the Vine: Viticulture in Ancient Israel [2000]; R. Phillips, A Short History of Wine [2000]; P. E. McGovern, Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture [2003]; ISBE rev. [1979–88], 4:1068–72.)